Violence Normalisation, Community Disintegration and Educational Outcomes amid Terrorism, Banditry and Kidnapping: A Comparative Study of Borno, Zamfara, Kaduna and Niger States, Nigeria

USHIE Emmanuel; OJOMUYIDE, Sunday; OGULU, Tom; ALALI, Ima

Authors

USHIE, Doris Emmanuel Department of Social Studies and Civic Education University of Calabar, Calabar Author
OJOMUYIDE, Godwin Sunday Department Of Sociology Faculty Of Social Sciences University Of Port Harcourt Port Harcourt Rivers State Author
OGULU, Odeiem Tom Department Of Sociology Faculty Of Social Sciences University Of Port Harcourt Port Harcourt Rivers State Author
ALALI, Margaret Ima Department Of Sociology Faculty Of Social Sciences University Of Port Harcourt Port Harcourt Rivers State Author

Keywords:

Violence Normalisation, Community Disintegration, Educational Outcomes, Conflict Affected Communities, Nigeria

Abstract

The study examined the influence of violence normalisation on community disintegration and educational outcomes in conflict affected communities of Nigeria. This study adopted a mixed-methods cross-sectional research design. The study purposively selected 20 communities that have experienced significant levels of terrorism, banditry, kidnapping or related violent conflict across Borno, Zamfara, Kaduna and Niger States. The population of the study comprised residents of selected conflict-affected communities in Nigeria. A sample size of 385 subjects was drawn from the population using systematic sampling technique. The major instrument for quantitative data collection was a thirty-item structured questionnaire titled violence normalisation on community disintegration and education outcomes. The questionnaire was subjected to face and content validity. The reliability of the questionnaire was determined using Cronbach's Alpha coefficient with a reliability coefficient of 0.74. Data obtained from the questionnaires were coded and entered into a statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 25. Pearson correlation and Multiple Regression Analysis were used to test the hypotheses. The finding of the study revealed a significant relationship between violence normalisation and community disintegration in conflict-affected communities of Nigeria. The finding further revealed a significant relationship between community disintegration and educational outcomes in conflict-affected communities of Nigeria. The conclusion was that violence normalisation is an important social consequence of prolonged exposure to terrorism, banditry and kidnapping in conflict-affected communities. It was recommended among others that the government should strengthen community-based security and protection mechanisms in conflict-affected communities to reduce residents’ repeated exposure to terrorism, banditry and kidnapping.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Adeniran, Y., & Showunmi, S. (2026, June 2). Oyo kidnap: Public schools shut, protesters demand more action from govt, security operatives. The Nation.

Al Jazeera (2026, May 19). Gunmen abduct 39 students, 7 teachers in attacks on Nigeria schools. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/5/19/gunmen-abduct-39-students-7-teachers-in-attacks-on-nigeria-schools.

Ajogbeje, K., & Sylwester, K. (2024). How conflict affects education: Differences between Boko Haram and Farmer-Herder conflicts in Nigeria. World Development, 117, 106540. Https//doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2024.106540.

Associated Press. (2026, June 7). Armed group kidnaps 39 people during negotiations in northwestern Nigeria.

Associated Press. (2026, May 15). Students missing following attack by armed groups on school in northeastern Nigeria, police say. AP News. https://apnews.com/article/6c6abefa10e494d7f3d43eb60d7dc131

Associated Press. (2026, May 16). Students missing following attack by armed groups on school in northeastern Nigeria, police say.

Bertoni, E., Di Maio, M., Molini, V., & Nisticò, R. (2019). Education is forbidden: The effect of the Boko Haram conflict on education in North-East Nigeria. Journal of Development Economics, 141, 102249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2018.06.007

Betancourt, T. S., Agnew-Thomas, A., Anglim, J., Amsalu, R., Cleare, J., Foman, M., et al. (2013). Psycho-social adjustment and mental health in former child soldiers—systematic review of the literature and recommendations for future research. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(1), 17–36. https://doi.org/10/1016/j.jaac.20212.11.007

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.

Bunte, J. B., & Vinson, L. T. (2016). Local power-sharing institutions and interreligious violence in Nigeria. Journal of Peace Research, 53(1), 49–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343315614999

Cihon, S., & Mattaini, M. (2023). Guest Editorial: It is time for systemic change—A call for action in implementing inclusive and culturally responsive educational practices for young people. Behavior and Social Issues, 32(1), 1–8. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10231952.

and Kidnapping: A Comparative Study of Borno, Zamfara, Kaduna and Niger States, Nigeria USHIE, Doris Emmanuel, OJOMUYIDE, Godwin Sunday, OGULU, Odeiem, Tom & ALALI, Margaret Ima Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94(Supplement), S95–S120.

Datta, V. (2023). Conflict, constraints and cohesion: Exploring the intersecting dynamics and influences shaping education provision in North-East Nigeria (Doctoral thesis, University College London). UCL Discovery. https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10183129/

Ebonine, V. C. (2022). “Darkening the dark”: Assessing the impact of banditry on educational and socioeconomic development in Northern Nigeria. Journal of Black Studies, 53(6), 561–582. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219347221086312

Idris, A., Lenshie, N. E., Umaru, M., Onuh, P. A., & Ganiyu, A. D. (2004). Market warfare strategy and rural armed banditry in Zamfara State, Nigeria. Africa Security Review, 33(4), 476-496. https://doi.org/10.1080/10246029.2024.2398473

Ike, T. J., Antonopoulos, G. A., & Singh, D. (2025). Community perspectives of terrorism and the Nigerian government’s counterterrorism strategies: A systematic review. Criminology & Criminal Justice, 25(2), 285-314. https://doi.org/10.1177/17488958221110009

Kurt, S. (2026, May 17). Nigeria says 42 students abducted in Boko Haram attack on school in Borno. Anadolu Agency. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/nigeria-says-42-students-abducted-in-boko-haram-attack-on-school-in-borno/3939913

Margolin, G., & Stehr, M. (2009). A social-cognitive-ecological framework for understanding the impact of exposure to persistent ethnic–political violence on children's psycho-social adjustment. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 12(2), 143–165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-009-0062-8.

Nsangi, M., et al. (2025). Do conflicts influence the accumulation of bonding, bridging, and linking social capital? Insights from Cameroon. Social Capital and Conflict

Nwagboso, C. I. (2012). Security challenges and economy of the Nigerian state (2007–2011).

American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 2(6), 244–258.

Okoli, A. C., & Chukwuma, O. M. (2022). Banditry and insecurity in Northwestern Nigeria: Implications for national security and development. African Security, 15(2), 129–148.

Okoli, A. C., & Lenshie, N. E. (2018). Nigeria: Nomadic migrant herders and rural violence. Conflict Studies Quarterly, 25, 3–28.

Okoli, A. C., Aina, F., & Onuoha, F. C. (2024). Banditry and captive population syndrome in northern Nigeria. Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/17467586.2024.2356509

Østby, G., Haer, R., & Helskog, K. (2026). Children's schooling in the context of attacks on education: Evidence from Nigeria. Security Dialogue, 7(1), 59-64.

Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The American great decline in community. Simon & Schuster.

Reuters. (2026, June 5). 'We want our children back': Nigeria's kidnapping nightmare spreads south.

Reuters. (2026, May 16). Forty-two pupils missing after Nigeria school attack, lawmaker says. Reuters. (2026, May 18). Officials say 39 pupils abducted in Nigeria's Oyo state, one teacher killed. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/officials-say-39-pupils-abducted-nigerias-oyo-state-one-teacher-killed-2026-05-18/

Shaw, C. R., & McKay, H. D. (1942). Juvenile delinquency and urban areas. University of Chicago Press.

A Publication of Primus Academics Research Consult (PARC) ISSN: 3141-3110, EISSN: 3141-6578

Shockden, E. I., Bahago, B. A., & Omede, J. (2023). Well-being and academic attitudes among secondary school students living in a context of life-threatening collective violence in Northern Nigeria. Frontiers in Education, 8(2), 121-128.

The Guardian. (2026, June 8). Bandits in north-west Nigeria abduct villagers they invited to discuss peace talks.

The Guardian. (2026, June 9). 'We are familiar faces': Are local peacemakers the answer to Nigeria's bandit crisis?

Uduo, T. A., & Obaji-Akpet, I. O. (2025). An examination of insurgency and terrorism in Nigeria: Analysing the national security framework. East African Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, 8(2), 160-174. https://doi.org/10.37284/2ajass.8.2.3035

UNICEF (2025). The impact of insecurity on access to education in Katsina, Zamfara, and Niger States. UNICEF Nigeria.

United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). (2026). Education in Nigeria. UNICEF. United Nations Children's Fund. (2024). Education under threat in Northeast Nigeria. United Nations Development Programme. (2023). Journey to extremism in Africa: Pathways to recruitment and disengagement.

Wang, F., Gao, J., & Liu, Y. (2024). Spatiotemporal evolution of Nigeria's armed conflicts and terrorism and the associated shift in social perceptions. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 11, 1301-1308.